Earth is an active planet shaped by moving rock, flowing water, changing air, living organisms, and energy from the Sun.
Earth science brings together geology, meteorology, oceanography, and climate science to explain how our planet works. Scientists study rocks, earthquakes, volcanoes, weather, oceans, ice, and the atmosphere to understand processes that can unfold in seconds or over millions of years. These systems are connected, so a change in one part of Earth can influence many others.
Rocks and minerals record the history of Earth and reveal how landscapes formed.
Learn MoreMoving plates build mountains, open oceans, and produce many earthquakes and volcanoes.
Learn MoreAir, moisture, temperature, and pressure work together to create changing weather.
Learn MoreOcean currents move heat, shape climates, and connect distant parts of the planet.
Learn MoreLong-term patterns reveal how energy, water, ice, land, and gases interact.
Learn MoreThe geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere constantly affect one another.
Learn MoreGeology is the study of Earth’s solid materials and the processes that change them. Rocks form in several ways: igneous rocks cool from molten material, sedimentary rocks form from deposited particles or chemical processes, and metamorphic rocks are altered by heat and pressure. By studying rock layers, fossils, minerals, and landforms, geologists can reconstruct parts of Earth’s history. Some rocks preserve evidence of ancient seas, deserts, volcanic eruptions, and living organisms that existed long before humans.
Earth’s outer shell is broken into large pieces called tectonic plates. These plates move slowly over the softer material beneath them, usually only a few centimeters each year. Where plates collide, separate, or slide past one another, they can form mountain ranges, deep ocean trenches, volcanoes, and earthquakes. The theory of plate tectonics explains why many geological features occur in predictable belts around the planet and why continents have changed position over geologic time.
Weather describes short-term conditions in the atmosphere, including temperature, wind, clouds, rain, snow, and storms. Much of weather begins with uneven heating from the Sun: some regions receive more energy than others, creating differences in temperature and air pressure. Water also plays a major role as it evaporates, condenses into clouds, and returns to the surface as precipitation. Meteorologists combine observations from satellites, radar, weather stations, balloons, and computer models to forecast how conditions may change.
Oceans cover most of Earth’s surface and store enormous amounts of heat. Winds drive many surface currents, while differences in temperature and salinity help move deeper water. These currents transport heat, nutrients, gases, and organisms around the globe. The ocean also exchanges water and carbon dioxide with the atmosphere, making it an important part of both weather and climate. Oceanographers study waves, tides, currents, chemistry, seafloor features, and marine ecosystems to understand this vast connected system.
Climate describes long-term patterns in temperature, precipitation, winds, and other conditions, usually measured over decades or longer. Earth’s climate is influenced by sunlight, greenhouse gases, oceans, ice, land surfaces, volcanic activity, and changes in Earth’s orbit. Scientists study tree rings, ice cores, sediments, historical records, instruments, and satellites to understand past and present climate. Because climate involves many connected systems, researchers use physical evidence and computer models together to test how different factors influence long-term change.
Earth science often divides the planet into interacting systems: the geosphere includes rock and land, the hydrosphere includes water, the atmosphere includes the air, and the biosphere includes living things. These systems constantly exchange matter and energy. A volcanic eruption can send particles and gases into the atmosphere; rainfall can erode rock and carry sediment into rivers; plants can change soils and the movement of carbon. Studying these connections helps scientists understand hazards, natural resources, ecosystems, and how changes in one part of the planet can spread through others.